Invictus - William Ernest Henley

Out of the night that covers me,
    Black as the Pit from pole to pole,
I thank whatever gods may be
    For my unconquerable soul.

In the fell clutch of circumstance
    I have not winced nor cried aloud.
Under the bludgeonings of chance
    My head is bloody, but unbowed.

Beyond this place of wrath and tears
    Looms but the Horror of the shade,
And yet the menace of the years
    Finds, and shall find, me unafraid.

It matters not how strait the gate,
    How charged with punishments the scroll,
I am the master of my fate: 15
    I am the captain of my soul.

William Shakespeare - Sonnet 71

 

No longer mourn for me when I am dead

Then you shall hear the surly sullen bell

Give warning to the world that I am fled

From this vile world, with vilest worms to dwell:

Nay, if you read this line, remember not

The hand that writ it; for I love you so

That I in your sweet thoughts would be forgot

If thinking on me then should make you woe.

O, if, I say, you look upon this verse

When I perhaps compounded am with clay,

Do not so much as my poor name rehearse.

But let your love even with my life decay,

Lest the wise world should look into your moan

And mock you with me after I am gone

ESATA

fe yu ke ri di yu ke ta esata
For the complete language description, go to the link at the bottom of this page.

Esata is a newly designed 'constructed language.' It is a bare bones version
of the English language, which has also been internationalized to a high degree. In the target language, Esata is a 'phrase word' meaning 'know (how to) speak.' In Esata a compromise is being sought between the now globally dominant English, and the rest of the world's major languages. Many people have studied English and can speak it well, but millions of others who do not have the time or the educational background are also speaking it, badly. Less competent speakers of English represent an ever increasing user group. Eventually, we can expect that the numbers of those who speak some Creole or corrupted version of English will predominate over those who speak it well. In this context Esata is proposed as the basis for a standard internationalized 'creole English', an attempt to gain control over the 'vulgarized' form of the language, and influence its future.

There are several features of Esata that should interest researchers in the area
of artificial languages. It is regular and highly compact, with text lengths
considerably shorter than those of English. A novel feature is the use of
'phrase words' abbreviated forms allowing definition of new vocabulary and
concepts, both from English and from all the world's major languages. Esata
also contains an (optional) new alphabet, which can represent up to 4 normal
letters in a compact yet easy to read matrix.

Words are formed from syllables of consonant plus vowel. The normal English
alphabet is used, but vowels have only one sound, and some consonants have
different sounds (c as ch, x as sh).

Here are some examples of phrases in Esata:

hubiyu who are you?
wobixi where is she?
vayuti what do you think?
bidara is that right?
hobihiko how is he coming?
weyovisa when will I know?
biherelanu Is it running like new?

wixuha tidafoda We should have thought of that
zekubiqi They could be here
yonotavegu I don't talk very good
feyunosanose If you don't know, don't say
wikegotodexa We can go to the shop
mikarelanu My car runs like new.

for the primary list, short forms of English are used. When a word from another language is more concise, it is usually preferred. Approximately half of the vocabulary of Esata is from foreign sources, making the language very international.

A special feature of Esata is the use of 'phrase words', which are contractions
of several one syllable words into a short form. Using a prefix syllable, which
serves as a language qualifier, up to 100 different language origens can be defined, each with an associated list of 10,000 phrase words, so in principle up
to a million foreign phrase words are definable. Other phrase words based on
two syllable Esata words allow for definition of several million other special purpose expressions, many of which can replace conventional vocabulary.

In the examples below, the prefix letter 'e' indicates English
egoge go get - fetch
emunu must new - urgent renewal
ejasi God see - omniscience
epama past man - predecessor
epoci power drink - alcohol
efasi far see - telescope
esohu some who - someone
emalu man place - eg. men's club
ewobi where be - location
ebagu bad good - pro and contra
ehogo how go - means of transport
ekuko could come - might happen
etiso think some - reflect

The grammar of Esata is quite straightforward, based primarily on English.
In the language description online there are complete details and an adequate
set of vocabulary. Anyone interested in trying the language can learn quickly
the 'primary meanings list' given below consisting of all the one syllable words.
From this list you can make your own sentences and phrase words as in the example above, and experiment with the language. Esata is a 'personal language', meaning you can use it to communicate easily with your friends, but others will not be able to understand you.

This is the kernel of the Esata language, the primary meanings list. In most cases syllables are close to their English equivalents. In some cases no English word with a similar sound was found, and so a foreign source word was adopted.

ba bad be but bi be bo boy bu boom
ca hello ce there is, are ci drink co there is not cu eat
da that de the di this do money du do
fa of fe if fi feel fo for fu future
ga girl ge get gi give go go gu good
ha have he it hi he ho how hu who
ja God je just ji high jo joy ju low
ka car ke can ki key ko come ku could
la like le let (object) li little lo love lu place
ma man me may mi me mo more mu must
na and ne a, an ni in no no nu new
pa past pe pay pi please po power pu put
qa there qe question qi here qo quote qu cool
ra right re run, work ri read ro wrong ru room
sa know se say si see so some su soon
ta talk te thing ti think to to tu too
va what ve very vi will vo or vu (esc/cntrl)
wa why we when wi we wo where wu woman
xa shop xe sure xi she xo show xu should
ya yes ye yeh, refl.pronoun yi you (formal) yo I yu you
za (escape/data) ze they zi easy zo so zu life

several changes in primary list were made on 09/06

Example Texts in Esata


Now we present a few sample dialogs, with translation. Esata is intended to be a personal language, so most of these are typical conversations that you would expect to hear at street level.

Dlog wan: Jono na Jeno

ca jono
hi John
ca jeno, hobiyu?
hi Jane, how are you?
yobigu, nayu?
I'm good, and you?
gutu dank, vayubidu?
good too, thanks, what are you doing?
yobida teka brek fom studa.
I was taking a break from studying.
mitu, fi lak mihed goha bu.
Me too, feel like my head is going to explode.
Sem witmi. Yola lerna beje nefew horz hetnetam.
Same with me. I like learning but just a few hours at a time
Ya, yura. Sovayu godu naw?
Yes, you're right. So what are you going to do now?
Nosa, ti mebi gonide cit.
Don't know, think maybe go in the city.
Nide cit, wano? Wonago togeti?
In the city, why not? Want to go together?
Ya, lezgo. Hir bije debus, hayu netik?
Yeh, let's go. Here is just the bus, have you got a ticket?
Nohane, hayune sper?
Don't have one, do you have a spare?
Tiso lemi xeka, yehane.
Think so, let me check, yeh have one.
hok, wike geni. Peyune kof ni cit, yohasudo.
OK we can get in. Pay you a coffee in town. I have some money.
Dis sitz bi feri. Yu wona dewen?
These seats are free. You want the window?
Yu sita dar. Yusa, bihepi siyu tud.
You sit there. You know, I'm happy to see you today.
Rili? mitu bi hepi renitayu la di.
Really? Me too, happy to run into you like this.
Ye, wike studa haft.
Yeh, we can study after.
No tulati, yomu pasa dates frad.
Not too late, I must pass that test Friday.
Yuvi pasa he, no wera.
You will pass it, don't worry.

Dlog tuh: Jimo na Wano

jimo, bidayu?
Jim, is that you?
Wano, yudama.
Juan, you're the man.
Vahup ma?
What's up man?
Note, je xuta sohupz.
Nothing, just shooting some hoops.
Yugobi dar tomar?
You going to be there tomorrow?
Yubeta yovibidar, daza fomi neve bigi dey.
You bet I'll be there, that's a very big day for me.
Ya, fayu dugu yubiko ne kayikin.
Yeh, if you do good you become a 'street king'.
Kayikinz, debes klan nide cit.
Street Kings, the best gang in the city.
Wi rula dipar fadetawn, nohuse difri.
We rule this part of the town, nobody says different.
Beno vehu gebi nekin, jedebes.
But not everybody gets to be a King, just the best.
Yo wonabi wan fadebes, dawa yo wona binekin.
I want to be one of the best, that's why I want to be a king
Yu gata xo yudestuf, hez nogobizi.
You got to show your stuff, it's not going to be easy.
Yu gata bi tofi na yu gota bi smari.
You got to be tough and you got to be smart.
Ya, lazese, suva nide cay yunida bof.
Yeh, like they say, to survive in the street you need both.
Biko nekin, wante, yu muta delang.
To become a King, one thing you must talk the language.
Yema, yo woka da halde tam.
Yeh man, I'm working that all the time.
Be yu ke hredi tagu Esata, yubi lera fasi.
But you can already talk good Esata, you're learning fast.
No bi tuhari pikupa, be yonida prak spika.
It's not too hard to pick up, but I need practice speaking.
Das va wita halde tam, hebi wide persi lang.
That's what we talk al the time, it's our personal language.
Yo ti dabi soqu ha yuyede pers lang.
I think that's so cool to have your own personal language.
No soli da, wiha nespexi dlek fodekinz tu.
Not only that, we have a special dialect for the kings too.
Yude dlek nobi parfa Esata?
Your dialect isn't part of Esata?
Norili, ni Esata vehu ke dfina hixiye dlek.
Not really, in Esata everyone can define his/her own dialect
wiha wodz fo lot tez, da nohu lel ke kapa.
We have words for lots of things, that no one else can understand
Wonz yu bi nidekinz wigoxoyuda.
Once you're in the Kings we're going to show you that.
No ke weta tilden.
I can't wait till then.

Dlog tih: Tomo na Debreno

skuzami yo hovhirda yu taha Esata, wulaka jonahin, bi hok wityu?
Excuse me, I overheard you talking Esata and would like to join in, is it OK with you?
Xur, yubi welki. Va yudenem?
Sure, you're welcome, what's your name?
It's Tomo, nayu?
I'm Tom, and you?
Yoye kala debreno.
I'm called the brain.
Mubi fo yudetelgen.
Must be for your intelligence.
Norili, bida miga hugidami denem.
Not really, it was my girl who gave me the name.
Gaz bigu fo giyu nedifri yemaj
Girls are good for giving you a different self image.
Ya yuzli nemo sili maj
Yes, usually a sillier image.
No lewi stara tabota gaz, ze breka mihed.
Let's not start talking about girls, they break my head.
sem witmi, note be trubz, mos fadetam.
Same with me, nothing but troubles most of the time.
Hoko yutazogu Esata?
How come you talk so good Esata?
Yone frin spikdahe na gedami ntresi tu.
A friend of mine was speaking it and got me interested too.
Yuzli hapina lak dat, dabida hoyo begda tu.
Usually happens like that, that was how I began too.
Hayumo frinz huketa Esata?
Do you have more friends who can talk Esata?
Honli wituh, yowula hamo pipl withuta. Only we two, I would like to have more people to talk with.
Mebiwiku mita hagn sowe na ta sumo.
Maybe we could meet again sometime and talk some more.
Yowulada. Hirbi mifonnum. Satde bi feri.
I'd like that. Here's my phone number. Saturday's I'm free.

Manlog: Wamigodu tud?

Hebi satd, vamigodu tud?
It's Saturday, what am I going to do today?
Tunat dabi degem hon tivu, nowona misa da.
tonight there's the game on TV, don't want to miss that.
Nide hafnun wona gofo nejog.
In the afternoon I want to go for a jog.
Dimor yoku klinupa dehapar, beduno fimula duhe.
This morning I could clean up the appartment, but I don't feel much like doing it.
Mivi pusu hodr nimikloz ni wax yesde dixz.
I'll put some order in my clothes and wash yesterday's dishes.
Yonogo swipupa vo vaka, lis no tud.
I'm not going to sweep up or vacuum, at least not today.
Hafda gonage dreza, ber xeva tu, luk laneklox.
After that gonna get dressed, better shave too, look like a bum (clochard).
Den godona konah na gesu befas.
Then go down (to the) corner and get some breakfast.
Ne bigi plet fa srambi hegz na tost.
A big plate of scrambled eggs and toast.
Dan mebi ri depapr. Nobimu nuz dizdez.
Then maybe read the paper. There's not much news these days.
Yosa, kuteka debic na gohova todepark waca de futbal prak.
I know, could take the bike and go over to de park and watch the footbal practice.
Ze gata sugu plerz diyir.
They've got some good players this year.
Mebi yoku kala fedo nasifa hiz duha sute, wiku mebi mitupa nide park.
Maybe I could call Fred and see if he's doing something, we
could maybe meet up in the park.
Wel dabi jebot nedeyfol tez todufomi.
Well that's just about a day full of things to do for me.


Manlog tuh: de hommeke

Dirmi, darbi tumeni tez yogotadu tud.
Dear me, there are too many things I've got to do today.
Wax dekloz, hagaze draha, hrana de klini kloz, puze nide klaz.
Wash the clothes, hang them to dry, iron the clean clothes, put them in the closet.
Pikupa dekedz het skul na tekema tode bertdey fest kros town.
Pick up the kids at school and take them to the birthday party across town.
Dan kuka dinr. Vawigona hit? Wihada spaget lasnat,
Then cook dinner. What are we going to eat? We had spagetti
last night.
mebi tonat kuha fix wit ris na vegez.
maybe tonight could have fish with rice and vegetables,
Ber stara tawa de fix laredi.
better start thawing the fish already.
Hoh, dabi defon, yoko, yoko.
Oh, there's the phone, I'm coming, I'm coming.
Helo, ca melo sava? Ya dugu, bizo bizi, noha tam xeta folan.
Hello, hi Emily how are you? (ca va?) Yes, doing good, am so busy, don't have time to chat for long.
Yowu lokoto yudehas Frad vniy. Pilemi xekwit hebo fe hiz feri.
I would love to come to your house Friday evening. Please let me check with Abe if he's free.
Yovi kalbeka na telyu fewikeko nibot hafhor, hok?
I'll call you back and tell you if we can come in about half an hour, OK?
So gled yu fonda Melo, na dank foyude vitx. Nas tawityu, xus.
So glad you phoned, Emily, and thanks for your invitation. Nice talking with you, tchuss.
Naw vabidati? Ya, vete yohadu. Dirmi darbi tumeni tez.
Now what was I thinking? Yes, everything I have to do. Dear me there are too many things.

Manlog tih: bekto skul

Bekto skul, ma hegobi tof ditam.
Back to school, man it's going to be tough this time.
Jes wanmo yir naden gubay redbrik skulhas.
Anyway one more year and then goodbye red brick schoolhouse.
Gubay meriku hist, jomtrih, na hangelu lit,
Goodbye American history, geometry, and English literature.
gubay jim, na taw fatz nidexar,
Goodbye gym, and towel fights in the shower,
na doz tupi bonhedz halwe pleya prakel jokz,
and those stupid boneheads always playing practical jokes.
fe yo nev size hagn hez tusun.
if I never see them again it's too soon.
Gubay weya nilayn folunx, na goha tode enbide simbliz
Goodbye waiting in line for lunch, and going to the
big-dumb assemblies.
na veki Miz Srit te vehu nota nidehalz.
and old Miss Street telling everyone no talking in the halls
Gubay viko yode teru lo, huje wona bi frinz
Goodbye Vicky, my true love, who just wants to be friends.
na gubay tode hoki tim woyoha kipda benx xod fo tuh yirz.
and goodbye hockey team, where I've kept the bench warm (chaud) for
two years.
Nosa feyoke teka hanoti yir falada trub, vane ways fatam.
Don't know if I can take another year of all that trouble,
what a waste of time.
Be den, vanobi neways fatam? Serti steya hom nobi ber.
But then, what isn't a waste of time. Certainly staying home
isn't better.
Hinwey, bi jebot dar. Hoh Ja, hirwigo.
Anyway, am just about there. Oh God, here we go.
Ca viko, vane spraz, hobigo?
Hi Vicky, what a surprise, how's it going?
Wana waka togeti na xera de lasi prexi mintz fa frid?
Want to walk together and share the last precious minutes of
freedom?

ISRO Press Release

Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft completes 3000 orbits around the Moon

July 17, 2009

Chandrayaan-1, India's first mission to Moon, launched on October 22, 2008 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre, Sriharikota, has completed eight months of successful operation and has made 3,000 revolutions around the Moon. Besides sending more than 70,000 images of the lunar surface which provide breathtaking views of lunar mountains and craters, especially craters in the permanently shadowed areas of the Moon's polar region, Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft is alsocollecting valuable data pertaining to the chemical and mineral content of the Moon. Chandrayaan-1's orbit was raised from 100 km to 200 km circularon May 19, 2009. The high orbital altitude of Chandrayaan-1 reduces the resolution of the imagery but provides a wider swath and the data is of good quality.

The onboard star sensor used for determining the orientation of the spacecraft started malfunctioning on April 26, 2009. To overcome this anomaly, ISRO devised an innovative technique of using redundant sensors – gyroscopes – along with antenna pointing information and images of specific location on the surface of the moon, for determining the orientation of the spacecraft. This method has been validated and based on this information, mission operations are being carried out satisfactorily. Other than the failure of the star sensor and one of the Bus Management Units, health of the spacecraft is normal.

Recent review by scientists has confirmed that all primary mission objectives of Chandrayaan-1 have been successfully realised during the eight months of its operation. The spacecraft continues to send high quality data as per planned sequence to its ground station at Byalalu near Bangalore. Detailed review of the scientific objectives and the performance results on the Chandrayaan-1 mission is scheduled within three months after which further operational procedures will be worked out.

It may be recalled that the primary mission of Chandrayaan-1 were:

a) To realise the complex spacecraft with 11 scientific instruments
b) To launch the spacecraft in near earth orbit and to carry out orbit raising manoeuvres of the spacecraft from 22,000 km to 3,84,000 km and place thespacecraft in a circular orbit around the moon
c) To place the Indian Tricolour on the moon
d) To carry out the imaging operation of the lunar surface and collect data on the mineral content of the lunar surface
e) To realise the deep space tracking network and implement the operational procedures for travel into deep space

With the successful realisation of these objectives, additional data that will be derived during the remaining part of Chandrayaan-1's life will be complementary to already derived information.

The data collected from Chandrayaan-1 instruments have been disseminated to the Indian scientists and also the partners from Europe and USA. The scientific community is extremely happy with the already obtained data and the results of analysis could be expected in about 6 months to 1 year period.

--
Asha V.P

Nuclear-powered submarine to be fitted with ballistic missiles

Source: The Hindu

A nuclear-powered submarine is a much more complex platform than any other vessel and India building one on its own is a great achievement. This is the unanimous assessment of officials, be they from the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO), the Department of Atomic Energy or the Indian Navy.

What enhances the scale of the achievement is that INS Arihant, India's nuclear-powered submarine, will be fitted with India's own K-15 ballistic missiles that can be launched from under water. The K-15 missiles, which are already under production, can carry both conventional and nuclear warheads. They have a range of 700 km. They are 10.4 metres tall and weigh 6.3 tonnes each.

"This is a very big capability," a DRDO official said. "It means we can launch missiles with nuclear warheads from ground, drop nuclear bombs from air and also fire them now from under water."

A nuclear-powered submarine bestowed on India the status of a nation possessing a blue-water navy because the boat can travel far and wide.

While the Navy designed INS Arihant, the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) built the mini-nuclear reactor that powers the submarine, the DRDO developed the K-15 missiles. The K-15 missiles have been test-fired several times from submerged pontoons off the coast of Visakhapatnam. A missile emerging from the water without losing its fire was a technology in itself.

A distinct advantage of a nuclear-powered submarine is that while it can remain under water for a long duration, a diesel-fired submarine has to rise to the surface every day for ejecting the carbon-dioxide produced by the diesel-generator. Otherwise, the boat's crew will face problem.

"In a nuclear-energy system used in a submarine, there is no emission of carbon-dioxide. It is a clean form of energy," a DRDO official explained. "The turbine operating on enriched uranium in INS Arihant is a clean system. But a diesel-generator emits carbon-dioxide. You cannot discharge it into the water. So the submarine has to be brought up to the surface every day to eject the carbon-dioxide into the atmosphere."

Trials to follow

DRDO officials cautioned that while INS Arihant entering water from the dry-dock in the Ship-Building Centre of the Visakhatpatnam harbour on Sunday was an important step forward, making the boat operational would take time. "The submarine will now go for harbour acceptance trials (HATs). Then it will go for sea acceptance trials (SATs). Later it will go down to a certain depth and come up," they said.

A nuclear-powered submarine was a highly complex platform and safety regulations had to be adhered to. "There are hundreds of systems on the boat. They have to work one after another. This is called setting-to-work. The HATs and SATs will last about a year-and-a-half. This is the most difficult period of activity and you have to do it perfectly. Then the K-15 missiles will be fitted into the boat."

M. Natarajan, Scientific Advisor to the Defence Minister, was present when the INS Arihant was launched on Sunday.

The project has been named the "Advanced Technology Vessel" (ATV) programme. Vice-Admiral (retired) D.S.P. Varma is the Director-General of the ATV programme.

ഒരു പുസ്തകം

ഇന്നു ബസ്സില്‍ വച്ചു ഒരു പെണ്‍കുട്ടിയെ പരിചയപ്പെട്ടു, അവളുടെ കയ്യില്‍ ഒരു പുസ്തകം ഉണ്ടായിരുന്നു, അതിനാല്‍ ഞാന്‍ ഇങ്ങനെ ഒരു പോസ്റ്റ് എഴുതുന്നു. അവളുടെ പേരു അനു. കയ്യില്‍ പബ്ലിക് ലൈബ്രറിയില്‍ നിന്നെടുത്ത ശശി തരൂരിന്റെ 'കലാപം' (the riot) അവളുടെ കയ്യിലുണ്ടായിരുന്നു. ഞാന്‍ ചെമ്മനം ചാക്കോയുടെ 'കിഞ്ചന വര്‍ത്തമാനം' വായിക്കുകയായിരുന്നു. ഞാന്‍ എന്ത് ചെയ്യുകയാണെന്ന് അവള്‍ തിരക്കി, ചെറിയൊരു ജോലി ഉണ്ടെന്നു ഞാനും. 'കലാപം' ഒരു നല്ല പുസ്തകമാണെന്നും, അത് ഒരു വിവര്‍ത്തനമാനെന്നും എന്റെ ചോദ്യങ്ങള്‍ക്ക് മറുപടിയായി അവള്‍ പറഞ്ഞു. എന്റെ പക്കല്‍ വേറെ ഏതൊക്കെ പുസ്തകമാണ് ഉള്ളതെന്ന് കൗതുകത്തോടെ അവള്‍ തിരക്കി - ഫ്യോദര്‍ ദൊസ്തെവിസ്കിയുടെ 'best short stories' ആണ് കയ്യിലുള്ളതെന്നും, അത് പബ്ലിക് ലൈബ്രറിയില്‍ നിന്നു തന്നെ എടുത്തവയാണെന്നും ഞാന്‍ പറഞ്ഞു.
ശശി തരൂരിന്റെ കവിതാ സംഹാരം വായിക്കുന്നതായി ഞാനൊരിക്കല്‍ സ്വപ്നം കണ്ടിരുന്നു; അദ്ദേഹം കവിതകള്‍ എഴുതിയിട്ടുണ്ടോ? അറിയില്ല!

What is the significance of Number 108 in Hindu Mythology...???

 

Dear all,

 

Its so interesting to understand the myths associated with this…

Check out this exhaustive info…

 
 

Significance of No. 108
 

What is the significance of Number 108 in Hindu Mythology?

As per Indian mythology, Indian culture has a very special significance of
number 108. What is this number represent, and why is it so important?

1) In one minute, we breathe in approximately 15 times, in 1 hour 900 times,  and in 12 hours 10800 times, and in a day 10800 * 2 times. A day consists of 24 hours, and if we set aside half the day for our day to day routines, then one can spend 12 hours for recitation of one's idol. Therefore, the maximum number of times that one can recite "mantra", or perform "Jap" are 10800. If one wants to obtain 100% benefit of its jap, then performing jap 108 times will give you the benefit of 100%. That's why in a "Mala", there are 108 beads. It is written in Vedas, that 1 Jap corresponds to 1 mala (which has 108 beads), therefore performing jap of 108 malas will result in 100% benefit.

2) Astronomically, there are 27 constellations in our galaxy, and each one them has 4 directions, and 27 * 4 = 108, In other words the number 108 covers the whole galaxy.

3) According to Indian scriptures, letter 9 corresponds to Lord Brahma (the creator of universe). Mathematically, the interesting property of 9 is
9x1 = 9
9 x 2 = 18 (8+1 = 9)
9 * 3 = 27 (7+2 = 9)
9 * 12 = 108 (1+0+8 = 9)

4) In Hindu religion, number 9 is very important. Keeping the importance of number 9, Rishi Vyas has created 9 Purans, 108 MahaPuran Upnishads).
Mahabharat has 18 chapters, Geeta has 18 chapters, Bhagavat has 108000 Shloks (verses).

The addition of digits of number 108 is 9, and number 9 is related with Brahma, that's why 108 is very important, and came into lot of Indian
scriptures.

5) Indian Vedas, treats the Sun as God, and Sun has 12 signs (Zodiac signs).
In Yajurved, Sun is related with Lord Brahma (the number 9), remember -
12 * 9 = 108; therefore for Gods Prayer, the number 108 is very sacred.

6) According to Indian mythology, there are 4 Yugs
Satyug - consists of 172,800 years (1+7+2+8 = 18 == (1+8 = 9)
TretaYug consists of 1296000 years (1+2+9+6 = 18 = (1+8 = 9)
DwaparYug consists of 864000 years (8+4+6) = 18 = (1+8 = 9)
Kaliyug consists of 432000 years (4+3+2) = 9

Harshad number: 108 is a Harshad number, which is an integer divisible by the sum of its digits (Harshad is from Sanskrit, and means "great joy")

Desires: There are said to be 108 earthly desires in mortals.

Lies: There are said to be 108 lies that humans tell.

Delusions: There are said to be 108 human delusions or forms of ignorance.

Heart Chakra: The chakras are the intersections of energy lines, and there are said to be a total of 108 energy lines converging to form the heart chakra. One of them, sushumna leads to the crown chakra, and is said to be the path to Self-realization.

Sanskrit alphabet: There are 54 letters in the Sanskrit alphabet. Each has masculine and feminine, shiva and shakti. 54 times 2 is 108.

Pranayama: If one is able to be so calm in meditation as to have only 108 breaths in a day, enlightenment will come.

Upanishads: Some say there are 108 Upanishads, texts of the wisdom of the ancient sages.

Sri Yantra: On the Sri Yantra there are marmas where three lines intersect, and there are 54 such intersections. Each intersections has masculine and feminine, shiva and shakti qualities. 54 times 2 equals 108. Thus, there are 108 points that define the Sri Yantra as well as the human body.  The angle formed by two adjacent lines in a pentagon equals 108 degrees.

Pentagon: The angle formed by two adjacent lines in a pentagon equals 108 degrees.

Marmas: Marmas or marmasthanas are like energy intersections called chakras, except have fewer energy lines converging to form them. There are said to be 108 marmas in the subtle body.

Time: Some say there are 108 feelings, with 36 related to the past, 36 related to the present, and 36 related to the future.

8 extra beads: In doing a practice of counting the number of repetitions of the mala, 100 are counted as completed. The remaining are said to cover errors or omissions. The 8 are also said to be an offering to God and Guru.

Chemistry: Interestingly, there are about 115 elements known on the periodic table of the elements. Most of those, around or higher than the number 100 only exist in the laboratory, and some for only thousandths of a second. The number that naturally exist on Earth is around 100.

Astrology: There are 12 constellations, and 9 arc segments called namshas or chandrakalas. 9 times 12 equals 108. Chandra is moon, and kalas are the divisions within a whole.

River Ganga: The sacred River Ganga spans a longitude of 12 degrees (79 to 91), and a latitude of 9 degrees (22 to 31). 12 times 9 equals 108.

Planets and Houses: In astrology, there are 12 houses and 9 planets. 12 times 9 equals 108.

Goddess names: There are said to be 108 Indian goddess names.

Gopis of Krishna: In the Krishna tradition, there were said to be 108 gopis or maid servants of Krishna.

1, 0, and 8: Some say that 1 stands for God or higher Truth, 0 stands for emptiness or completeness in spiritual practice, and 8 stands for infinity or eternity.

Sun and Earth: The diameter of the Sun is 108 times the diameter of the Earth. The distance from the Sun to the Earth is 108 times the diameter of the Sun.

Moon and Earth: The average distance of the Moon from the Earth is 108 times the diameter of the Moon.

Silver and the moon: In astrology, the metal silver is said to represent the moon. The atomic weight of silver is ?108.

Numerical scale: The 1 of 108, and the 8 of 108, when added together equals 9, which is the number of the numerical scale, i.e. 1, 2, 3 ... 10, etc., where 0 is not a number.

Meditations: Some say there are 108 styles of meditation.

Breath: Tantra estimates the average number of breaths per day at 21,600, of which 10,800 are solar energy, and 10,800 are lunar energy. Multiplying 108 by 100 is 10,800. Multiplying 2 x 10,800 equals 21,600.

Paths to God: Some suggest that there are 108 paths to God.

Smaller divisions: The number 108 is divided, such as in half, third, quarter, or twelfth, so that some malas have 54, 36, 27, or 9 beads.

Hinduism: 108 is said to refer to the number of Hindu deities. Some say that each of the deities has 108 names.

Islam: The number 108 is used in Islam to refer to God.

Jain: In the Jain religion, 108 are the combined virtues of five categories of holy ones, including 12, 8, 36, 25, and 27 virtues respectively.

Sikh: The Sikh tradition has a mala of 108 knots tied in a string of wool, rather than beads.

Buddhism: Some Buddhists carve 108 small Buddhas on a walnut for good luck. Some ring a bell 108 times to celebrate a new year. There are said to be 108 virtues to cultivate and 108 defilement to avoid.

Chinese: The Chinese Buddhists and Taoists use a 108 bead mala, which is called su-chu, and has three dividing beads, so the mala is divided into three parts of 36 each. Chinese astrology says that there are 108 sacred stars.

Stages of the soul: Said that Atman, the human soul or center goes through 108 stages on the journey.

Meru: This is a larger bead, not part of the 108. It is not tied in the sequence of the other beads. It is the guiding bead, the one that marks the beginning and end of the mala.

Dance: There are 108 forms of dance in the Indian traditions.

Praiseworthy souls: There are 108 qualities of praiseworthy soul

First man in space: The first manned space flight lasted 108 minutes, and was on April 12, 1961 by Yuri Gagarin, a Soviet cosmonaut

Time: Some say there are 108 feelings, with 36 related to the past, 36 related to the present, and 36 related to the future.

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Asha V.P

ഗീതാഞ്ജലിയെക്കുറിച്ച് .....

.... ഗീതാഞ്ജലിയെക്കുറിച്ച് എനിക്ക് പറയാനുള്ളത് ഇത്ര മാത്രം - മഹത്തരം!
ഇന്നലെ ഗീതാഞ്ജലിയുടെ ഒരു ഇംഗ്ലീഷ് പതിപ്പ് എനിക്ക് കിട്ടി. ഞാനത് വായിച്ചു തുടങ്ങുകയും ചെയ്തു. W.B.Yeats ന്റെ അവതാരിക വായിച്ചപ്പോള്‍ തന്നെ തോന്നി, ഈ കൃതി വളരെ മുന്‍പേ വായിച്ചിരിക്കേണ്ട ഒന്നായിരുന്നെന്നു. ഞാന്‍ പശ്ചാത്തപിക്കുന്നു. ഒരു ഭാരതീയനയിട്ടു കൂടി രബിന്ദ്രനാഥ് ടാഗോറിന്റെ 'ഗീതാഞ്ജലി' വായിക്കാതെ പോയല്ലോ, കഷ്ടം!
ഭാരതത്തിന്‌ നോബല്‍ സമ്മാനം നേടിത്തന്ന ഗീതാഞ്ജലിയെക്കുറിച്ച് :

രബീന്ദ്രനാഥ ടാഗോറിനു 1913-ലെ സാഹിത്യത്തിനുള്ള നോബല്‍ സമ്മാനം നേടിക്കൊടുത്ത കൃതിയാണ്‌ ഗീതാഞ്ജലി. ഒരു സധാരണ മനുഷ്യനു തന്റെ മനോഗതതിനനുസരിചു വ്യാഖ്യാനിക്കാന്‍ സധിക്കുന്ന ഒരു കൃതിയല്ല ഗീതാഞ്ജലി. ഒരു സാധാരണ ഭാവനക്കുമപ്പൂറത്താണു അതിന്റെ കാന്വസ്. എന്നിട്ടും ഈ ഗദ്യകാവ്യം മനുഷ്യമനസ്സിനെതന്നെ മാറ്റിമറിക്കുന്നു.
ടാഗോര്‍ മനോഹരവും ഭൗതികവുമായുള്ള വസ്തുക്കളെ പ്രതീകങ്ങള്‍ ആയി ഉപയോഗിച്ചിരിക്കുന്നു. പതിയേ ഒഴുകുന്ന ചിറ്റാറുകള്‍, കാറ്റിന്റെ നാദം, ഇടിയുടേ പെരുമ്പറ ശബ്ദം, പാറിപറക്കുന്ന തേനീച്ചകള്‍, വിരിയുന്ന താമരകള്‍, പ്രകാശിക്കുന്ന നക്ഷത്രങ്ങള്‍, കാര്‍മേഖം നിറഞ്ഞ ആകാശം, ഇരുട്ടുള്ള രാത്രി, മഷിക്കറുപ്പാര്‍ന്ന പുഴയുടെ മങ്ങിയ തീരം, ഇലം പൈതലുകളുടെ നിര്‍മ്മലമായ ചിരി, ഈറല്, ഇഴജന്തുക്കള്‍, കക്കകള്‍ ഇങ്ങനെ അസംഖ്യം ജീവനുള്ളതും ഇല്ലാത്തതും ഭംഗിയുള്ളതും ഇല്ലാത്തതുമായ വസ്തുക്കളുടെ പ്രതീകാത്മകത ഗീതാഞ്ജലിയെ മികവുറ്റതാക്കി മാറ്റുന്നു, ടാഗോറിന്റെ ഭാവനയില്‍ ഈ വസ്തുക്കള്‍ സംഭരിച്ചെടുക്കുന്ന മനോഹാരിതയും, തേജസ്സും ആയവും ആയിരിക്കാം ഒരുപക്ഷെ ഗീതാഞ്ജലിയിലൂടെ ജനങ്ങള്‍ക്കു ലഭിക്കുന്ന ഏറ്റവും വലിയ അര്‍ച്ചന.
ഗീതാഞ്ചലിയുടെ ഇംഗ്ലീഷിലുള്ള ആദ്യപതിപ്പിന്റെ മുഖവുരയില്‍ W.B Yeats ഈ കൃതിയെ വാനോളം പുകഴ്തിയിരിക്കുന്നു. ഇതിലെ പൂക്കളും പുഴകളും പെരുമഴയും പൊരിയുന്ന വെയിലും എല്ലാം മനുഷ്യമനസ്സിന്റെ വിവിധ ഭാവങളെ പ്രകടമാക്കുന്നു.വായിക്കുന്ന ഓരോരുത്തറ്ക്കും സ്വന്തം പ്രതിബിംബംതന്നെ കാണാന്‍ കഴിയുന്നു,സ്വന്തം ശബ്ദം കേള്‍ക്കാന്‍ സാധിക്കുന്നു.ഒരു പക്ഷേ ചെറുപ്പത്തില്‍തന്നെ ജീവിതത്തില്‍ സംഗീതത്തിനുള്ള പ്രാധാന്യം ടാഗോര്‍ മനസ്സിലാക്കിയിരിക്കണം. ബംഗാളില്‍ രബീന്ദ്രസംഗീതത്തിനു വളരെ വലിയൊരു സ്ഥാനം ഉണ്ട്. ഗീതാഞ്ജലിയിലും സംഗീതം വളരെ ഫലവത്തായി ഉപയോഗിച്ചിരിക്കുന്നു. പദ്യഭാഗങളുടെ ഒഴുക്കും താളവും ലയവും ഗീതാഞ്ചലിയില്‍ എടുത്തുപറയേണ്ടതാണു. ഈ ഗദ്യകാവ്യത്തില്‍ ടാഗോര്‍ ദൈവം സര്‍വ്വവ്യാപിയാണെന്നു പറയുന്നതിങ്ങനെയാണ്. ദൈവത്തെകാണാന്‍ ദേവാലയത്തിന്റെ ഇരുണ്ട കോണില്‍ വാതിലടച്ചുനിന്നു ശ്ലോകം ചൊല്ലുകയോ പൂജ ചെയ്യുകയോ അല്ല വേണ്ടതു. കണ്ണു തുറന്നു നോക്കു. ദൈവം നിങളുടെ മുന്‍പില്‍ അല്ല ഉള്ളത്.ദൈവം ചൂടിലും മഴയത്തും അഴുക്കുവസ്ത്രങളുമണിഞു പാടത്തും പറമ്പത്തും പണിയെടുക്കുന്നവന്റെ കൂടെയാണു ഉള്ളതു, റോഡില്‍ കല്ലുകൊത്തു ന്നവന്റെ കൂടെയാണൂള്ളതു. അവരുടെ ഇടയിലേക്കു നിങള്‍ ഇറങിചെല്ലൂ, ദൈവത്തെ അവിടെ കാണാന്‍ സാധിക്കും. ടാഗോറീന്റെ ജീവിതത്തിലെ തത്ത്വവും ഇതുതന്നെയായിരുന്നു. ദീപോത്സവത്തില്‍ ചേരുവാനായി, ദീപവുമേന്തിപോകുന്ന വനിതയോടു തന്റെ വീട്ടില്‍ ഏകാന്തതയും ഇരുട്ടും നിറഞിരിക്കുന്നു,ഈ ദീപം തനിക്കു നല്‍കാമോ എന്നു ചോദിക്കുമ്പോള്‍ ഇരുട്ടുള്ളിടത്താണു ദീപം തെളിയിക്കേണ്ടതു എന്ന സത്യം അദ്ദേഹം നമ്മളെ ഓര്‍മ്മിപ്പിക്കുന്നു. ടാഗോര്‍ ഗീതാഞലിയിലൂടെ ജനങ്ങള്‍ക്കു വെളിച്ചവും പ്രബോധനവും നല്‍കുന്നു. ഇരുപതാം നൂറ്റാണ്ടിന്റെ ഇന്‍ഡ്യന്‍ സാഹിത്യത്തില്‍ ടാഗോറീന്റെ രചനകള്‍ വളരെ പ്രധാനസ്ഥാനത്തു നില്‍ക്കുന്നു. നൂറീല്‍പരം പദ്യഭാഗങ്ങളടങ്ങുന്ന ഗീതാഞലി ഒരു കൊച്ചുകുഞ്ഞു കളീക്കുന്നതു കാണുമ്പോള്‍ ഉണ്ടാകുന്ന ആനന്ദം മുതല്‍ അയാളുടെ ദൈവത്തിനോടുള്ള പരാതിവരെയുള്ള കാര്യങള്‍ ഉള്‍ക്കൊണ്ടിരിക്കുന്നു.സമയത്തേയും സ്ഥലത്തേയും വെല്ലുന്നവയാണിവ.
ഈ ലിങ്ക് സന്ദര്‍ശിച്ചാലും : നോബല്‍ പ്രൈസ്
ഗീതാഞ്ജലിയുടെ ഇംഗ്ലീഷ് പതിപ്പ് ഇവിടെ വായിക്കാം: Gitanjali

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Understanding Copyright and Related Rights

Intellectual Property

Copyright legislation is part of the wider body of law known as intellectual property. The term intellectual property refers broadly to the creations of the human mind. Intellectual property rights protect the interests of creators by giving them property rights over their creations.

The Convention Establishing the World Intellectual Property Organization (1967) gives the following list of subject matter protected by intellectual property rights:

• literary, artistic and scientific works;
• performances of performing artists, phonograms, and broadcasts;
• inventions in all fields of human endeavor;
• scientific discoveries;
• industrial designs;
• trademarks, service marks, and commercial names and designations;
• protection against unfair competition; and
• "all other rights resulting from intellectual activity in the industrial, scientific, literary or artistic fields."

Intellectual property relates to items of information or knowledge, which can be incorporated in tangible objects at the same time in an unlimited number of copies at different locations anywhere in the world. The property is not in those copies but in the information or knowledge reflected in them. Intellectual property rights are also characterized by certain limitations, such as limited duration in the case of copyright and patents.

The importance of protecting intellectual property was first recognized in the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property in 1883 and the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works in 1886. Both treaties are administered by the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO).

Countries generally have laws to protect intellectual property for two main reasons. One is to give statutory expression to the moral and economic rights of creators in their creations and to the rights of the public in accessing those creations. The second is to promote creativity, and the dissemination and application of its results, and to encourage fair trade, which would contribute to economic and social development.

The Two Branches of Intellectual Property: Industrial Property and Copyright

Intellectual property is usually divided into two branches, namely industrial property, which broadly speaking protects inventions, and copyright, which protects literary and artistic works.

Industrial property takes a range of forms. These include patents to protect inventions, and industrial designs, which are aesthetic creations determining the appearance of industrial products. Industrial property also covers trademarks, service marks, layout-designs of integrated circuits, commercial names and designations, as well as geographical indications, and protection against unfair competition.

Copyright relates to artistic creations, such as books, music, paintings and sculptures, films and technology-based works such as computer programs and electronic databases. In most European languages other than English, copyright is known as author's rights. The expression copyright refers to the main act which, in respect of literary and artistic creations, may be made only by the author or with his authorization. That act is the making of copies of the work. The expression author's rights refers to the creator of the artistic work, its author. It thus underlines the fact, recognized in most laws, that the author has certain specific rights in his creation which only he can exercise (such as the right to prevent a distorted reproduction). Other rights (such as the right to make copies) can be exercised by other persons, for example, a publisher who has obtained a license from the author.

While other types of intellectual property also exist, it is helpful for present purposes to explore the distinction between industrial property and copyright in terms of the basic difference between inventions and literary and artistic works.

Inventions may be defined in a non-legal sense as new solutions to technical problems. These new solutions are ideas, and are protected as such; protection of inventions under patent law does not require that the invention be represented in a physical embodiment. The protection accorded to inventors is, therefore, protection against any use of the invention without the authorization of the owner. Even a person who later makes the same invention independently, without copying or even being aware of the first inventor's work, must obtain authorization before he can exploit it.

Unlike protection of inventions, copyright law protects only the form of expression of ideas, not the ideas themselves. The creativity protected by copyright law is creativity in the choice and arrangement of words, musical notes, colors and shapes. So copyright law protects the owner of property rights against those who copy or otherwise take and use the form in which the original work was expressed by the author.

From this basic difference between inventions and literary and artistic works, it follows that the legal protection provided to each also differs. Since protection for inventions gives a monopoly right to exploit an idea, such protection is short in duration- usually about 20 years. The fact that the invention is protected must also be made known to the public. There must be an official notification that a specific, fully described invention is the property of a specific owner for a fixed number of years; in other words, the protected invention must be disclosed publicly in an official register.

Since the legal protection of literary and artistic works under copyright, by contrast, prevents only unauthorized use of the expressions of ideas, the duration of protection can be much longer than in the case of the protection of ideas themselves, without damage to the public interest. Also, the law can be - and in most countries is - simply declaratory, i.e., the law may state that the author of an original work has the right to prevent other persons from copying or otherwise using his work. So a created work is considered protected as soon as it exists, and a public register of copyright protected works is not necessary.

Works Protected by Copyright

For the purposes of copyright protection, the term "literary and artistic works" is understood to include every original work of authorship, irrespective of its literary or artistic merit. The ideas in the work do not need to be original, but the form of expression must be an original creation of the author. The Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (Article 2) states: "The expression 'literary and artistic works' shall include every production in the literary, scientific and artistic domain, whatever may be the mode or form of its expression". The Convention goes on to list the following examples of such works:

• books, pamphlets and other writings;
• lectures, addresses, sermons;
• dramatic or dramatico-musical works;
• choreographic works and entertainments in dumb show;
• musical compositions with or without words;
• cinematographic works to which are assimilated works expressed by a process analogous to cinematography;
• works of drawing, painting, architecture, sculpture, engraving and lithography;
• photographic works, to which are assimilated works expressed by a process analogous to photography;
• works of applied art; illustrations, maps, plans, sketches and three-dimensional works relative to geography, topography, architecture or science;
• "translations, adaptations, arrangements of music and other alterations of a literary or artistic work, which are to be protected as original works without prejudice to the copyright in the original work..
• collections of literary or artistic works such as encyclopaedias and anthologies which, by reason of the selection and arrangement of their contents, constitute intellectual creations, are to be protected as such, without prejudice to the copyright in each of the works forming part of such collections."

Member countries of the Berne Union, and many other countries, provide protection under their copyright laws for the above categories of works. The list, however, is not intended to be exhaustive. Copyright laws also protect other modes or forms of expression of works in the literary, scientific and artistic domain, which are not included in the list.

Computer programs are a good example of a type of work which is not included in the list in the Berne Convention, but which is undoubtedly included in the notion of a production in the literary, scientific and artistic domain within the meaning of Article 2. Indeed, computer programs are protected under the copyright laws of a number of countries, as well as under the WIPO Copyright Treaty (1996). A computer program is a set of instructions, which controls the operations of a computer in order to enable it to perform a specific task, such as the storage and retrieval of information. The program is produced by one or more human authors, but in its final "mode or form of expression," it can be understood directly only by a machine (the computer), not by humans. Multimedia productions are another example of a type of work not listed in the Berne Convention, but which clearly comes within the notion of creations in the literary, scientific and artistic domain. While no acceptable legal definition has been developed, there is a consensus that the combination of sound, text and images in a digital format, which is made accessible by a computer program, embodies an original expression of authorship sufficient to justify the protection of multimedia productions under the umbrella of copyright.

Rights Protected

The most important feature of any kind of property is that the owner may use it exclusively, i.e., as he wishes, and that nobody else can lawfully use it without his authorization. This does not, of course, mean that he can use it regardless of the legally recognized rights and interests of other members of society. Similarly the owner of copyright in a protected work may use the work as he wishes, and may prevent others from using it without his authorization. The rights granted under national laws to the owner of copyright in a protected work are normally exclusive rights to authorize a third party to use the work, subject to the legally recognized rights and interests of others.

There are two types of rights under copyright. Economic rights allow the rights owner to derive financial reward from the use of his works by others. Moral rights allow the author to take certain actions to preserve the personal link between himself and the work.

Most copyright laws state that the author or rights owner has the right to authorize or prevent certain acts in relation to a work. The rights owner of a work can prohibit or authorize:

• its reproduction in various forms, such as printed publications or sound recordings;
• the distribution of copies;
• its public performance;
• its broadcasting or other communication to the public;
• its translation into other languages;
• its adaptation, such as a novel into a screenplay.

These rights are explained in more detail in the following paragraphs.

Right of reproduction and related rights

The right of the copyright owner to prevent others from making copies of his works without his authorization is the most basic right protected by copyright legislation. The right to control the act of reproduction – be it the reproduction of books by a publisher, or the manufacture by a record producer of compact discs containing recorded performances of musical works - is the legal basis for many forms of exploitation of protected works.

Other rights are recognized in national laws in order to ensure that this basic right of reproduction is respected. Many laws include a right specifically to authorize distribution of copies of works. Obviously, the right of reproduction would be of little economic value if the owner of copyright could not authorize the distribution of the copies made with his consent. The right of distribution usually terminates upon first sale or transfer of ownership of a particular copy. This means, for example, that when the copyright owner of a book sells or otherwise transfers ownership of a copy of the book, the owner of that copy may give the book away or even resell it without the copyright owner's further permission.

Another right which is achieving increasingly wide recognition, and is included in the WIPO Copyright Treaty, is the right to authorize rental of copies of certain categories of works, such as musical works in sound recordings, audiovisual works, and computer programs. This became necessary in order to prevent abuse of the copyright owner's right of reproduction when technological advances made it easy for rental shop customers to copy such works.

Finally, some copyright laws include a right to control importation of copies as a means to prevent erosion of the principle of territoriality of copyright; that is, the legitimate economic interests of the copyright owner would be endangered if he could not exercise the rights of reproduction and distribution on a territorial basis.

Certain forms of reproduction of a work are exceptions to the general rule, because they do not require the authorization of the rights owner. These exceptions are known as limitations on rights. An area of current debate relates to the scope of one particular limitation traditionally present in copyright laws, which allows individuals to make single copies of works for private, personal and non-commercial purposes. The continued justification for such a limitation on the right of reproduction is being questioned now that digital technology has made it possible to produce high-quality, unauthorized copies of works, which are virtually indistinguishable from the source - and thus a perfect substitute for the purchase of authorized copies.

Rights of public performance, broadcasting and communication to the public, and making available to the public

A public performance is considered under many national laws to include any performance of a work at a place where the public is or can be present; or at a place not open to the public, but where a substantial number of persons outside the normal circle of a family and its close acquaintances is present. The right of public performance entitles the author or other copyright owner to authorize live performances of a work, such as a play in a theater, or an orchestra performance of a symphony in a concert hall. Public performance also includes performance by means of recordings. Thus a musical work is considered publicly performed when a sound recording of that work, or phonogram, is played over amplification equipment, for example in a discotheque, airplane, or shopping mall.

The right of broadcasting covers the transmission for public reception of sounds, or of images and sounds, by wireless means, whether by radio, television, or satellite. When a work is communicated to the public, a signal is distributed by wire or wireless means, which can be received only by persons who possess the equipment necessary to decode the signal. Cable transmission is an example of communication to the public.

Under the Berne Convention, authors have the exclusive right to authorize public performance, broadcasting and communication of their works to the public. Under some national laws, the exclusive right of the author or other rights owner to authorize broadcasting is replaced, in certain circumstances, by a right to equitable remuneration, although this sort of limitation on the broadcasting right is less and less common.

In recent years, the rights of broadcasting, public performance and communication to the public have been the subject of much discussion. New questions have arisen as a result of technological developments, in particular digital technology, which has introduced interactive communications, whereby the user selects which works he wishes to have delivered to his computer. Opinions diverge as to which right should be applied to this activity. The WIPO Copyright Treaty (WCT) (article 8) clarifies that it should be covered by an exclusive right, which the Treaty describes as the authors' right to authorize making their works available to the public "in such a way that members of the public can access these works from a place and at a time individually chosen by them". Most national laws implement this right as a part of the right of communication to the public, although some do so as part of the right of distribution.

Translation and adaptation rights

The acts of translating or adapting a work protected by copyright also require authorization from the rights owner. Translation means the expression of a work in a language other than that of the original version. Adaptation is generally understood as the modification of a work to create another work, for example adapting a novel to make a film; or the modification of a work for different conditions of exploitation, e.g., by adapting a textbook originally written for university students to make it suitable for a lower level.

Translations and adaptations are themselves works protected by copyright. So in order to publish a translation or adaptation, authorization must be obtained both from the owner of the copyright in the original work and from the owner of copyright in the translation or adaptation.

The scope of the right of adaptation has been the subject of significant discussion in recent years because of the greatly increased possibilities for adapting and transforming works which are embodied in digital format. With digital technology, manipulation of text, sound and images by the user is quick and easy. Discussions have focused on the appropriate balance between the rights of the author to control the integrity of the work by authorizing modifications, and the rights of users to make changes which seem to be part of a normal use of works in digital format.

Moral rights

The Berne Convention (Article 6bis) requires Member countries to grant to authors:

(i) the right to claim authorship of the work (sometimes called the right of paternity); and

(ii) the right to object to any distortion or modification of the work, or other derogatory action in relation to the work, which would be prejudicial to the author's honor or reputation (sometimes called the right of integrity).

These rights are generally known as the moral rights of authors. The Convention requires them to be independent of the author's economic rights, and to remain with the author even after he has transferred his economic rights. It is worth noting that moral rights are only accorded to individual authors. Thus even when, for example, a film producer or a publisher owns the economic rights in a work, it is only the individual creator who has moral interests at stake.

Limitations on Rights

The first limitation is the exclusion from copyright protection of certain categories of works. In some countries, works are excluded from protection if they are not fixed in tangible form. For example, a work of choreography would only be protected once the movements were written down in dance notation or recorded on videotape. In certain countries, the texts of laws, court and administrative decisions are excluded from copyright protection.

The second category of limitations concerns particular acts of exploitation, normally requiring the authorization of the rights owner, which may, under circumstances specified in the law, be carried out without authorization. There are two basic types of limitations in this category: (a) free use, which carries no obligation to compensate the rights owner for the use of his work without authorization; and (b) non-voluntary licenses, which do require that compensation be paid to the rights owner for non-authorized exploitation.

Examples of free use include:

• quoting from a protected work, provided that the source of the quotation and the name of the author is mentioned, and that the extent of the quotation is compatible with fair practice;
• use of works by way of illustration for teaching purposes; and
• use of works for the purpose of news reporting.

In respect of free use for reproduction, the Berne Convention contains a general rule, rather than an explicit limitation. Article 9(2) states that Member States may provide for free reproduction in special cases where the acts do not conflict with normal exploitation of the work and do not unreasonably prejudice the legitimate interests of the author. As noted above, many laws allow for individuals to reproduce a work exclusively for their personal, private and non-commercial use. However, the ease and quality of individual copying made possible by recent technology has led some countries to narrow the scope of such provisions, including through systems which allow certain copying, but incorporate a mechanism for payment to rights owners for the prejudice to their economic interests resulting from the copying.

In addition to the specific categories of free use set out in national laws, the laws of some countries recognize the concept known as fair use or fair dealing. This allows use of works without the authorization of the rights owner, taking into account factors such as the nature and purpose of the use, including whether it is for commercial purposes; the nature of the work used; the amount of the work used in relation to the work as a whole; and the likely effect of the use on the potential commercial value of the work.

Non-voluntary licenses allow use of works in certain circumstances without the authorization of the owner of rights, but require that compensation be paid in respect of the use. Such licenses are called non-voluntary because they are allowed in the law, and do not result from the exercise of the exclusive right of the copyright owner to authorize particular acts. Non-voluntary licenses were usually created in circumstances where a new technology for the dissemination of works to the public had emerged, and where the national legislator feared that rights owners would prevent the development of the new technology by refusing to authorize use of works. This was true of two non-voluntary licenses recognized in the Berne Convention, which allow the mechanical reproduction of musical works and broadcasting. The justification for non-voluntary licenses is, however, increasingly called into question, since effective alternatives now exist for making works available to the public based on authorizations given by the rights owners, including in the form of collective administration of rights.

Duration of Copyright

Copyright does not continue indefinitely. The law provides for a period of time during which the rights of the copyright owner exist. The period or duration of copyright begins from the moment when the work has been created, or, under some national laws, when it has been expressed in a tangible form. It continues, in general, until some time after the death of the author. The purpose of this provision in the law is to enable the author's successors to benefit economically from exploitation of the work after the author's death.

In countries party to the Berne Convention, and in many other countries, the duration of copyright provided for by national law is as a general rule the life of the author plus not less than 50 years after his death. The Berne Convention also establishes periods of protection for works such as anonymous, posthumous and cinematographic works, where it is not possible to base duration on the life of an individual author. There is a trend in a number of countries toward lengthening the duration of copyright. The European Union, the United States of America and several others have extended the term of copyright to 70 years after the death of the author.

Ownership, Exercise and Transfer of Copyright

The owner of copyright in a work is generally, at least in the first instance, the person who created the work, i.e. the author of the work. But this is not always the case. The Berne Convention (Article 14bis) contains rules for determining initial ownership of rights in cinematographic works. Certain national laws also provide that, when a work is created by an author who is employed for the purpose of creating that work, then the employer, not the author, is the owner of the copyright in the work. As noted above, however, moral rights always belong to the individual author of the work, whoever the owner of economic rights may be.

The laws of many countries provide that the initial rights owner in a work may transfer all economic rights to a third party. (Moral rights, being personal to the author, can never be transferred). Authors may sell the rights to their works to individuals or companies best able to market the works, in return for payment. These payments are often made dependent on the actual use of the work, and are then referred to as royalties. Transfers of copyright may take one of two forms: assignments and licenses.

Under an assignment, the rights owner transfers the right to authorize or prohibit certain acts covered by one, several, or all rights under copyright. An assignment is a transfer of a property right. So if all rights are assigned, the person to whom the rights were assigned becomes the new owner of copyright.

In some countries, an assignment of copyright is not legally possible, and only licensing is allowed. Licensing means that the owner of the copyright retains ownership but authorizes a third party to carry out certain acts covered by his economic rights, generally for a specific period of time and for a specific purpose. For example, the author of a novel may grant a license to a publisher to make and distribute copies of his work. At the same time, he may grant a license to a film producer to make a film based on the novel. Licenses may be exclusive, where the copyright owner agrees not to authorize any other party to carry out the licensed acts; or non-exclusive, which means that the copyright owner may authorize others to carry out the same acts. A license, unlike an assignment, does not generally convey the right to authorize others to carry out acts covered by economic rights.

Licensing may also take the form of collective administration of rights. Under collective administration, authors and other rights owners grant exclusive licenses to a single entity, which acts on their behalf to grant authorizations, to collect and distribute remuneration, to prevent and detect infringement of rights, and to seek remedies for infringement. An advantage for authors in collective administration lies in the fact that, with multiple possibilities for unauthorized use of works resulting from new technologies, a single body can ensure that mass uses take place on the basis of authorizations which are easily obtainable from a central source.

A rights owner may also abandon the exercise of the rights, wholly or partially. The owner may, for example, post copyright protected material on the Internet and leave it free for anybody to use, or may restrict the abandonment to noncommercial use. Some very impressive cooperation projects have been organized on a model where contributors abandon certain rights as described in the licensing terms adopted for the project, such as the General Public License (GPL). They thereby leave their contributions free for others to use and to adapt, but with the condition that the subsequent users also adhere to the terms of the license. Such projects, including the open source movement, which specializes in creating computer programs, also build their business models on the existence of copyright protection, because otherwise they could not impose an obligation on subsequent users.

Enforcement of Rights

The Berne Convention contains very few provisions concerning enforcement of rights, but the evolution of new national and international enforcement standards has been dramatic in recent years due to two principal factors. The first concerns advances in the technological means for creation and use (both authorized and unauthorized) of protected material. Digital technology in particular makes it easy to transmit and make perfect copies of any information existing in digital form, including copyright-protected works. The second factor is the increasing economic importance in the realm of international trade of the movement of goods and services protected by intellectual property rights. Simply put, trade in products embodying intellectual property rights is now a booming, worldwide business. This is acknowledged in the WIPO Copyright Treaty (WCT), which requires Contracting Parties to ensure that enforcement procedures are available under their law so as to permit effective action against any infringement of rights covered by the Treaty, including remedies to prevent or deter further infringements.

The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), which contains more detailed provisions on the enforcement of rights, is ample evidence of this new link between intellectual property and trade. The following paragraphs identify and summarize some of the enforcement provisions found in recent national legislation. They may be divided into the following categories: conservatory or provisional measures; civil remedies; criminal sanctions; measures to be taken at the border; and measures, remedies and sanctions against abuses in respect of technical devices.

Conservatory or provisional measures have two purposes: first, to prevent infringements from occurring, in particular to prevent the entry of infringing goods into the channels of commerce, including entry of imported goods after clearance by customs; and second, to preserve relevant evidence in regard to an alleged infringement. Thus, judicial authorities may have the authority to order that provisional measures be enacted without advance notice to the alleged infringer. In this way, the alleged infringer is prevented from relocating the goods to avoid detection. The most common provisional measure is a search of the premises of the alleged infringer and seizure of suspected infringing goods, the equipment used to manufacture them, and all relevant documents and other records of the alleged infringing business activities.

Civil remedies compensate the rights owner for economic injury suffered because of the infringement, usually in the form of pecuniary damages, and create an effective deterrent to further infringement. This is often in the form of a judicial order to destroy the infringing goods and the materials which have been predominantly used for producing them. If there is a danger that infringing acts may be continued, the court may also issue injunctions against such acts, failure to comply with which would subject the infringer to payment of a fine.

Criminal sanctions are intended to punish those who willfully commit acts of piracy on a commercial scale and, as in the case of civil remedies, to deter further infringement. The purpose of punishment is served by substantial fines, and by prison sentences consistent with the level of penalties applied for crimes of corresponding seriousness, particularly for repeat offenses. The purpose of deterrence is served by orders for the seizure and destruction of infringing goods, and of the materials and equipment used predominantly to commit the offense.

Measures to be taken at the border are different from the enforcement measures described so far, in that they involve action by the customs authorities rather than by the judicial authorities. Border measures allow the rights owner to request that customs authorities suspend the release into circulation of goods that are suspected of infringing copyright. This is intended to give the rights owner a reasonable time to commence judicial proceedings against the suspected infringer, without the risk that the alleged infringing goods will disappear into circulation after customs clearance. The rights owner must (a) satisfy the customs authorities that there is prima facie evidence of infringement, (b) provide a detailed description of the goods so that they can be recognized and (c) provide a security to indemnify the importer, the owner of the goods, and the customs authorities in case the goods turn out to be non-infringing.

The final category of enforcement provisions, which has achieved greater importance since the advent of digital technology, includes measures, remedies and sanctions against abuses in respect of technical means. In certain cases, the only practical means of preventing copying is through so-called copy-protection or copy-management systems. These use technical devices, which either entirely prevent copying, or make the quality of the copies so poor as to be unusable. Technical means are also used to prevent the reception of encrypted commercial television programs except with use of decoders. However, it is technically possible to manufacture devices to circumvent such copy-protection and encryption systems. The enforcement provisions are intended to prevent the manufacture, importation and distribution of such devices. Provisions to this effect are included in the WCT. So too are provisions to prevent the unauthorized removal or alteration of electronic rights management information, and the dissemination of copies of works from which such information has been removed. Such information may identify the author or rights owner, or contain information about the terms and conditions of use of the work. Removing it may result in the distortion of computerized rights management or fee-distribution systems.

Related Rights

The purpose of related rights is to protect the legal interests of certain persons and legal entities who contribute to making works available to the public; or who produce subject matter which, while not qualifying as works under the copyright systems of all countries, contain sufficient creativity or technical and organizational skill to justify recognition of a copyright-like property right. The law of related rights deems that the productions which result from the activities of such persons and entities merit legal protection in themselves, as they are related to the protection of works of authorship under copyright. Some laws make clear, however, that the exercise of related rights should leave intact, and in no way affect, the protection of copyright.

Traditionally, related rights have been granted to three categories of beneficiaries:

• performers,
• producers of phonograms and
• broadcasting organizations.

The rights of performers are recognized because their creative intervention is necessary to give life to, for example, motion pictures or musical, dramatic and choreographic works; and because they have a justifiable interest in legal protection of their individual interpretations. The rights of producers of phonograms are recognized because their creative, financial and organizational resources are necessary to make sound recordings available to the public in the form of commercial phonograms; and because of their legitimate interest in having the legal resources to take action against unauthorized uses, be this the making and distribution of unauthorized copies (piracy), or the unauthorized broadcasting or communication to the public of their phonograms. Likewise, the rights of broadcasting organizations are recognized because of their role in making works available to the public, and in light of their justified interest in controlling the transmission and retransmission of their broadcasts.

Treaties. The first organized international response to the need for legal protection of the three categories of related rights beneficiaries was the conclusion, in 1961 of the International Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations (Rome Convention). Unlike most international conventions, which follow in the wake of national legislation and are intended to synthesize existing laws, the Rome Convention was an attempt to establish international regulations in a new field where few national laws existed at the time. This meant that most States had to draft and enact laws before adhering to the Convention

Today, it is a widespread view that the Rome Convention is out-of-date and in need of revision or replacement by a new set of norms in the field of related rights, even though it was the basis for inclusion of provisions on the rights of performers, producers of phonograms, and broadcasting organizations in the TRIPS Agreement. (The levels of protection are similar, but not the same). For two of the categories of beneficiaries, up-to-date protection is now provided by the WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty (WPPT), which was adopted in 1996, together with the WCT. Work on a new, separate treaty on the rights of broadcasters continues at WIPO.

The rights granted to the three beneficiaries of related rights in national laws are as follows (although not all rights may be granted in the same law):

• Performers are provided the rights to prevent fixation (recording), broadcasting and communication to the public of their live performances without their consent, and the right to prevent reproduction of fixations of their performances under certain circumstances. The rights in respect of broadcasting and communication to the public may be in the form of equitable remuneration rather than a right to prevent. Due to the personal nature of their creations, some national laws also grant performers moral rights, which may be exercised to prevent unauthorized uses of their name and image, or modifications to their performances which present them in an unfavorable light.
• Producers of phonograms are granted the rights to authorize or prohibit reproduction, importation and distribution of their phonograms and copies thereof, and the right to equitable remuneration for broadcasting and communication to the public of phonograms.
• Broadcasting organizations are provided the rights to authorize or prohibit re-broadcasting, fixation and reproduction of their broadcasts.

Under some laws, additional rights are granted. For example, in a growing number of countries, producers of phonograms and performers are granted a right of rental in respect of phonograms (audiovisual works in respect of performers), and some countries grant specific rights over cable transmissions. Likewise under the WPPT, producers of phonograms (as well as any other right holders in phonograms under national law) are granted a right of rental.

As in the case of copyright, the Rome Convention and national laws contain limitations on rights. These allow use of protected performances, phonograms, and broadcasts, for example, for teaching, scientific research, or private use, and use of short excerpts for reporting current events. Some countries allow the same kinds of limitations on related rights as their laws provide in connection with copyright, including the possibility of non-voluntary licenses. Under the WPPT, however, such limitations and exceptions must be restricted to certain special cases, which do not conflict with the normal use of the performances of phonograms, and which do not unreasonably prejudice the legitimate interests of the performers or producers.

The duration of protection of related rights under the Rome Convention is 20 years from the end of the year (a) that the recording is made, in the case of phonograms and performances included in phonograms; or (b) that the performance took place, in the case of performances not incorporated in phonograms; or (c) that the broadcast took place, for broadcasts. In the TRIPS Agreement and the WPPT, however, the rights of performers and producers of phonograms are to be protected for 50 years from the date of the fixation or the performance. Under the TRIPS agreement, the rights of broadcasting organizations are to be protected for 20 years from the date of the broadcast. Thus many national laws which protect related rights grant a longer term than the minimum contained in the Rome Convention.

In terms of enforcement, remedies for infringement or violation of related rights are, in general, similar to those available to copyright owners as described above, namely, conservatory or provisional measures; civil remedies; criminal sanctions; measures to be taken at the border; and measures, remedies and sanctions against abuses in respect of technical devices and rights management information.

Finally, mention should be made of the relationship between the protection of related rights and the interests of developing countries. The largely unwritten and unrecorded cultural expression of many developing countries, generally known as folklore or traditional cultural expressions, may be protected under related rights as performances, since it is often through the intervention of performers that they are communicated to the public. By providing related rights protection, developing countries may also provide a means for protection of the vast, ancient and invaluable cultural expression, which is the essence of what distinguishes each culture. Likewise, protecting producers of phonograms and broadcasting organizations helps to establish the foundation for national industries capable of disseminating national cultural expression within the country and, perhaps more important, in markets outside it. The current popularity of what is called world music demonstrates that such markets exist. But the economic benefits from do not always return to the country where the cultural expressions originated. In sum, protection of related rights serves the twin objectives of preserving national culture and providing a means for commercial exploitation of international markets.

The interest of developing countries in the protection of related rights goes beyond the protection of traditional cultural expressions and into the realm of international trade and development. Today, the extent to which a country protects intellectual property rights is inextricably linked to the potential for that country to benefit from the rapidly expanding international trade in goods and services protected by such rights. For example, the convergence of telecommunications and computer infrastructures will lead to international investment in many sectors of developing country economies, including intellectual property, and those countries which lack political commitment to the protection of intellectual property rights will be left out of the frame. Protection of related rights has thus become part of a much larger picture. It is a necessary precondition for participation in the emerging system of international trade and investment that will characterize the 21^st century.

The Role of WIPO

The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) is an international organization dedicated to ensuring that the rights of creators and owners of intellectual property are protected worldwide, and that inventors and authors are thus recognized and rewarded for their ingenuity.

As a specialized agency of the United Nations, WIPO exists as a forum for its Member States to create and harmonize rules and practices to protect intellectual property rights. Most industrialized nations have protection systems that are centuries old. Many new and developing countries, however, are now building up their patent, trademark and copyright laws and systems. With the rapid globalization of trade during the last decade, WIPO plays a key role in helping these new systems to evolve through treaty negotiation, legal and technical assistance, and training in various forms, including in the area of enforcement of intellectual property rights.

The field of copyright and related rights has expanded dramatically as technological developments have brought new ways of disseminating creations worldwide through such forms of communication as satellite broadcasting, compact discs, DVDs and the Internet. WIPO is closely involved in the on-going international debate to shape new standards for copyright protection in cyberspace.

WIPO administers the following international treaties on copyright and related rights:

• Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works
• Brussels Convention Relating to the Distribution of Program-Carrying Signals Transmitted by Satellite
• Geneva Convention for the Protection of Producers of Phonograms Against Unauthorized Duplication of Their Phonograms
• Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations
• WIPO Copyright Treaty (WCT)
• WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty (WPPT)

WIPO also provides an Arbitration and Mediation Center, which offers services for the resolution of international commercial disputes between private parties involving intellectual property. The subject matter of these proceedings includes both contractual disputes (such as patent and software licenses, trademark coexistence agreements, and research and development agreements) and non-contractual disputes (such as patent infringement).

The Center is also now recognized as the leading dispute resolution service provider for disputes arising out of the abusive registration and use of Internet domain names.

Further information

Further information about all aspects of copyright and related rights is available on the WIPO website and in a range of WIPO publications. Many of these publications may be downloaded free of charge.

www.wipo.int - For the WIPO website

www.wipo.int/treaties - For full texts of all of the treaties regulating intellectual property protection .

www.wipo.int/ebookshop - To buy publications from the WIPO electronic bookshop. These include:

• Intellectual Property. A Power Tool for Economic Growth, by Kamil Idris, publication no.888
• WIPO Intellectual Property Handbook: Policy, Law and Use, publication no.489.
• Collective Management of Copyright and Related Rights, publication no. 855
• Guide to the Copyright and Related Rights Treaties Administered by WIPO and Glossary of Copyright and Related Rights Terms, publication no. 891
• Guide on Surveying the Economic Contribution of the Copyright-Based Industries, publication no.893
• WIPO Guide on the Licensing of Copyright and Related Rights, publication no. 897

www.wipo.int/publications - To download free publications. These include:

• WIPO General Information, publication no. 400
• From Artist to Audience: How creators and consumers benefit from copyright and related rights and the system of collective management of copyright, publication no 922

Links to the websites of national Intellectual Property Offices can be found at http://www.wipo.int/directory/en/urls.jsp

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Asha V.P